Over the years, several models have been proposed to explain the nature of memory processes (e.g., Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Craik & Lockhart , 1972; Estes & Maddox, 1995; One such model, the level of processing model, proposes that the length of time information can be held in memory depends on the depth to which it is processed, not the stage of memory in which it is held. A study by Smith, Theodore, and Franklin (1983) examined this hypothesis by investigating how depth of processing affects the amount of processing obtained when students process a target item in a lexical detection task (LDT). The study asked 100 students to make lexical decisions about the target after making a decision about the prime number. The result of the post-session unexpected recall test indicated that superior recall of words depended on how the prime was processed, with the semantic decision (deep processing) leading to greater facilitation for words whose processing was focused on visual or phonemic characteristics. surface treatment). Other studies (e.g., Gordon & Debus, 2002; Irwin & Lupker, 1983; Kearian, 1986) have also found that the deeper the encoding of information, the more durable the memory. For example, Gordon and Debus demonstrated that contextual modification of instruction, task demands, and assessment processes can increase students' use of deep learning approaches. They argued that the deep processing approach helps students solve problems, while using shallow processing approaches results in study behaviors that lead to low-quality learning outcomes. This supported earlier findings of Craik & Lockhart (1972) who postulated that the deep procedure...... middle of paper ...... Bulletin, 104, 53-69. Irwin, D., & Lupker, S. (1983). Semantic priming of pictures and words: A level-of-processing approach. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 245-260. Kearians, J. (1986). Visual spatial memory in Aboriginal and White Australian children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 38, 203-214. Raajimakers, J. and Shiffrin, R. (1981). Associative memory search. Psychological Review, 88, 93-134. Smith, S., Glenberg, A. and Bjork, R. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory & Cognition, 6, 342-353. Smith, M., Theodore, L., & Franklin, P. (1983). The relationship between contextual facilitation and depth of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: learning, memory and cognition, 9 (4), 697-712. Schulman, A.I. (1971). Recognition memory for targets in a digitized word list. British Journal of Psychology, 62, 335-346.