It reviews the history of summative assessment in the United States beginning in the late 1800s. It explains that there are two basic forms of summative assessment 1 ) “Teacher judgment in the form of grading summative assessments in class and assigning grades on report cards” and 2) “External tests for scientific, curriculum and institutional assessment purposes ". She reviews the history of teacher judgment and explains that these judgments lack validity and reliability. This is why the use of standardized tests has been preferred in the United States.