Newspapers allude to a new source of knowledge – through knowledge and fieldwork – which undermined these sources of authority. The history of academies in France during the Age of Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Sciences, founded in 1666 in Paris. The academies demonstrate the growing interest in science as well as its progressive secularization, as evidenced by the reduced number of religious people who were members (13%). The book outlines the appointment of the “bourgeois public sphere” in 18th-century Europe. The first was their role in shifting the attention of the “educated public” from “established authorities” to “what was new, innovative, or challenging.” Second, they did much to promote "'enlightened' ideals of tolerance and intellectual objectivity." Third, the newspapers were an implicit critique of existing notions of total accuracy monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and pious authorities. This condition lengthens the face, destroys the complexion, shortens its importance, and causes horrible havoc wherever it resides. Owen Aldridge demonstrated how Enl...